Micro and macro theories in political science focus

INTRODUCTION Countries exist to interact with other nations and states in the international arena. Thus, no country or nation is an island unto itself. As a result of this, isolation from international activities becomes very impossible. In the course of interaction countries tries to gain advantage over other countries, and this has been the basis of conflict and disagreement. Sometimes, if this is not properly handled it will lead to war.Scholars from different academic disciplines have posited many causes of war. Thus, the great debate over why war occurs has been approached from different dimension. For the historians, scholars like A.J. P. Taylor famously described wars as being like traffic accidents. But this approach has been criticized in the view that some leaders of states make conscious decision in embarking in war and this is not accidental.   For the Psychologist, human beings, especially men are inherently violent.This violence displacement where a person transfers t heir grievances into bias and hatred against other ethnic groups, nations, or ideologies â€Å"(Wikibooks: 2005).   Other psychologists argue that the mental unbalanced state of men who rule and control a nation, combine with their human temperament has been the basis of the occurrence of war. â€Å"This school argues leaders that seek war such as Napoleon, Hitler, and Stalin were mentally abnormal; screening process, such as election, could prevent these types from coming to power, war would end†.   (ibid.).The Anthropologists see the occurrence of war as a fundamentally cultural, learnt by nurture rather than nature. The Sociologists have Plethora of perspective in seeing the occurrence of war. Some see war as the product of domestic conditions, with only the target of aggression being determined by international realities. Others that differ from the traditional approach argue that it is the decision of statesmen and the geopolitical situation that leads to war.   T he Economist argues war can be seen as an outgrowth of economic competition in a chaotic and competitive international system.Having looked at the diverse and divergent viewpoint from which these scholars from different discipline has posited as the cause of war, this write up tend to look at the political aspect of why war occurs. As a result of this, various theories in the political science field would be applied to enumerate the reason behind the occurrence of war.DEFINITION OF TERMS Political science has been described as a hospitable umbrella for many disciplines all connected somehow with the operations of government or people acting in relation to government.According to Alfred Cobban, as quoted in Oyediran (1998:3), Political Science is a devise invented by university teachers for avoiding that dangerous subject politics without achieving Sciences†.Thus, political science is that social science discipline that seek to study government and how politics that has to do w ith the use of power, rule and authority in any human relationship is being conducted.The study of political science, the normative and the positive approach is adopted while scholars, such as Plato and Aristotle sought to identify the characteristics of politics, their causes and effects, leaving aside moral judgements about their goodness or badness. Therefore, it is seen that modern political scientists adopt a positive theory to issues that pertain to the field of study, hence, †what ought to be†. (Robert Dahl cited by Gerring, 2005:2).THEORY: Theory is defined as abstraction from the real world in order to give explanation to phenomenon. Thus, theories give explanation to the relationship that exists between variables. Theories are tested hypotheses that are generally accepted it is used through known facts to give an explanation to the unknown.WAR: War can be defined as conflict that arises from disagreement, which result into military combat and the end results wh ich is destruction of lives and properties.War can be classified into civil wars and foreign wars. Civil wars, are those wars that occur within a nation or a state as a result of the emergence of factions that are loyal to an identified group. A typical example of civil war in contemporary time is the civil war in Liberia in the 1990s, between late Samuel Deo faction and Charles Taylor faction. Another typical example of civil war is the 1967 to 1970 civil war in Nigeria, between the Federal troop and the Biafra faction that seek to secede from the Nigeria Federation.Foreign war is war that involves combat between or among sovereign nation or states. Example of this is World War 1 and World War II.In recent times the war between Iraq and Kuwait, and the US Allied Forces in the 1990s.Another version of war in contemporary political world is the cold war that had existed after the world war associated with the bipolar bloc i.e. the eastern bloc and the western bloc. This cold war is u nlike the real combat war where physical and military combat is carried out, but it has to do with war in international arena, that pertains to foreign policies and international pacts and agreement, that tend to be contended for:This cold war has made many countries to support either of the two factions. But, some countries, like in Africa adopt a different stand, the Non Aligned Movement is pursued as the foreign policies in these black nation. The cold war suddenly collapse in 1989, this brought an end to the bipolar structure of the international system.POLITICAL THEORIES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF WAR Political theories on the emergence of state can be utilized to explain the occurrence of war. Here, the Hobbessian theory of state and the force theory are readily applicable to why nation engage in war.The Hobbissian theory postulated by Thomas Hobbes, explain the human state of existence in what he called the â€Å"state of nature†. According to him, â€Å"nature has made man so equal in faculties of the body and mind and though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body or of quicker mind than another is not considerable as that one man can claim to himself any benefit to which another may not possess as well as he† (Hobbes, 1946).The equality of man here means they tend to nurse the same aspirations and desires, ends and the same hope. But the uniformity of aspiration tend to be evoke problem since the resources e.g. power, political influence, is a scarce resource that can not go round every body. Thus, it become problematic when two persons desire the same thing, which they cannot both obtain, they are likely to become enemies and always will seek to destroy one another.In applying this scenario to sovereign states, the scarce resources that each state seeks to obtain for itself, this brings about competition and invariably lead to the emergence of war, if such competition gets to the extreme and the level of tolerance become s unbearable. According to Ighadola (2000: 12), â€Å"human competitiveness for status symbols are always characterized by fighting where this happens outside the preview of any settled and civilized state, the picture of the â€Å"state of nature† comes to the fore boldly†.The state of nature as stipulated by Thomas Hobbes, is the time when men lived without a common power to keep them in check; i.e. every man is a government and law unto himself, there is no formal contract to the establishment of state and government. In state of nature, war of every man against every man was the perceptual condition of human relations. Thus, man is brutal and exhibited a hostile tendency towards those around him. It is also argued that, â€Å"War, as Hobbes used the concept, did not necessarily denote actual fighting, rather it meant the disposition to fight† (ibid)Man in the state of nature did not engage in perpetual warfare, he was only perpetually inclined to fight to ac quire what he desired and to protect what he already possessed. The inclination in man to be aggressive in competition and fight is moderated by the fear of death. Thus, the disposition to fight to is further heightened by the absence of centralized authority. In the international political arena before the emergence of international organization like the United Nation, the broke out of World War I and the emergence of World War II, is as a result of absence of a strong centralized International authority. The League of Nations collapsed as a result of the Second World War. This led to the emergence of the United Nations; that is acting as a centralized authority in the international arena, in preventing the outbreak of conflicts among nations or states.Another angle of the Hobbessains theory sees Man’s selfishness and self- seeking nature ensures, without a superior restraining force, the condition of the state of nature that would remain permanent. This results in a threat to the condusive actualization of human potentials and insecurity. In applying this to the emergence of wars among nations, it is seen that the selfishness and self-seeking nature of some nation has prompted them into encroaching into the rightful possession of other nation. In order to defend their possession, these other nation would recourse to protect itself by engaging in war. Most times, this has been the base of war among nations.Thus, Hobbes has proffered a centralized authority that is imposed in one individual as a solution to avert this state of nature, so as to prevent the brutish and aggressive nature in man, and thus, reducing the outbreak of war.Critics have pointed out that Hobbes advocacy of absolute power puts a hole in his argument. The central authority or sovereign should operate the law made, fairly and equitably among the people not absolute authority in one man. Thus, central power is advocated that is democratic, in place of the sovereign ruler of Hobbes. Th is is because the sovereign ruler is taken from society and has its own selfish desire, which could lead to autocratic rule, i.e., he cannot be outside society and therefore cannot be above the law. (ibid:15).Another political theory that can be use to advocate for the emergence of war is the Marxist theory. Karl Marx theory concentrates both on political and economic perspective of the state.   In his view, the society is divided into two main classes, i.e. the bourgeoisie and the proletariats, and this has always been the driving force behind conflict in society and its attendant social change.Marxist theory of war argues that all war grows out of the class war. It sees wars as imperial ventures to enhance the power of the ruling class and divide the proletariat of the world by pitting them against each other for contrived ideals such as nationalism or religion. ( Wikibooks, 2005).Marx and Engels posited in The German ideology that with all the mischief’s contradictions a nd crisis inherent in the capitalist mode of production, the proletariat bears the entire burden without enjoying its advantages, they become isolated from society. Having been driven to the wall, they are forced into the most decided antagonism to the other class because an alienated man is a revolutionary man. (Marx, et al, 1977).Hence, Karl Marx see wars as a natural outgro9wth of the free market and class system, and will not disappear until a world revolution occurs. According to Ighodalo (2000:20), â€Å"the expectation of Marx is that the destruction of the capitalist system would lead to the end of class antagonism, since the basis of it property ownership would have been eliminated thereby creating a classless society where all give according to his/ her ability and receive according to his/ her needs.†Another theory of the evolution of state that can be applied to the reason why war occurs is the Force theory. This school of thought holds that the state is a creatio n of conquest and coercion of the weak by the strong. The state was seen as evil because it was a way of oppressing the poor. However, German writers of the 19th century, contended that force was an essential attribute of a state. (Oyediran, 1998:19). The   Force theory can really be adduce as a basis why war emerge between nation.Countries that are strong and have mighty military force had in the past annexed weak countries to themselves. They succeeded in doing this by embarking on war with them. In 1939, Finland’s decision to resist the invasions and annexation aggression of Soviet led to the Winter War. â€Å" Though cases of invasion and annexations that did not lead to a war abound; such as the U.S. led invasion of Haiti in 1994, the Nazi invasions of Austria and Czechoslovakia preceding the Second World War, and the annexation of the Baltic States by the Soviet Union in 1940.CONCLUSION The different Political Theorist has directed their argument on the reason why wa r occurs, even though not in the same tone and direction, the fact that the selfish interest and self- seeking nature of man and government, has been identified as a major reason why war has been a recurrent factor in the international arena. Even internally, where civil war occurs within the boundary of a country this has retained the same causal factor. The fact is traceable down line immemorial of historical war among nations.Furthermore, the scarce resource, such as power has been a basis for the eruption of conflicts among nations, since these resource cannot go round, it tend to be conflictual.REFERENCESAkhakpe, Ighodalo, (2000), Leading Issues in Political Thought. Lagos: A- Triad Associates Publishers & Printers.Gerring, John (2005), A Normative Turn in Political Science? Boston University Department of Political Science.Hobbes, Thomas (1946), Leviathan Oxford: Basil Blackwill Ltd.  Oyediran, Oyeleye (1998), Introduction to Political Science. Lagos:——-Wikiboo ks (2005), â€Å" International relations: The Causes of War† https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/International_Relations:The_Causes_of_war. (3rd August, 2005)

FastFit Case Analysis Essay

1. 1. Mark the main flows of goods and money in the diagram (above) and employ a key or table of descriptive elements to explain your answer. 1. HQ contacts the supplier and tells them how much of each product the company needs. 2. The supplier sends the goods to the FastFit warehouse. 3. The warehouse notifies HQ about receiving the goods and how much of each product is in storage. 4. HQ tells the warehouse, which stores to send the products to, how much product each store needs and when the store needs the products. 5. The warehouse sends the proper amount of each good to the FastFit stores. 6. Customers come into the FastFit stores and pay money to purchase the products. 7. Store sells the customer the merchandise, receives money and personal information about the customer and sends the happy customer home with their purchase. 8. Store sends money and customer information to HQ. Store also sends information about what products have been successful and which products are not selling. 9. HQ tells suppliers which goods are going to be re-ordered. Also HQ pays for the goods that the supplier has supplied. 10. HQ tells store managers how to set up and run the FastFit stores to enable the highest level of success. 11. Supplier sends information about the goods that have been shipped to the warehouse and how much money is owed for the goods. 2. a) List the specific items of information that are usually gathered at the POS (Point of Sale terminal or cash register) and recorded when a customer checks out (excluding obtaining the identity of the customer which is covered in Q3)? b) What are three important uses of this information at the store by the store manager and by management at the headquarters– a total of six uses? (use a table) (It is important that you give different responses/uses for store manager and the HQ) Transactional Information – POS Transaction ID – Payment Type (credit/debit) – Date of Sale – Time of Sale – Amount Paid – Amount Due – Store Details (Name, Location, Branch) – Promotion/ Discount (if any) Product Information – Type of Product (Clothing/Accessory) – Product ID – Size of the Product – Product Brand – Price of the Product – Quantity of Product Staff Information – Which employee sold the product to the customer – Comparison on employee success Store Information – Sales Promotions Occurring – How long the product has been in the store – How many of the same products remain in store – How popular the product has been Use of Information by Store Managers: Information Elements Needed Description of the use – Which Employee sold the product to the customer – Quantity of items sold to the customer – Date and Time of the transaction – Total Amount of money the customer paid – Managers can see which employees have been selling the most. They can identify which employees have not been selling as much. They can provide incentives to encourage employees to get more sales – Type of Product – Product Brand – Quantity of Product – Size of Product – Managers can see which products are most popular in the store. Can implement new structures to display products in a desirable manner. Can tell employees which products to heavily advertise to customers. Can keep store stocked appropriately based on which items are most popular. – Amount Paid – Date of Sale – Time of Sale – Managers can see how much money the store is making on a daily, weekly and monthly basis. If sales are slow during certain periods, management might make a decision to lay off some employees. If sales are strong, management might need to hire more employees. Use of Information by Management at Headquarters: Information Elements Needed Description of Use – Size of Product – Product Brand -Type of Product – Quantity of Product sold – Sales Management can assess the information and understand which brands are popular in which store locations. Knowing the popular brands they can contact the suppliers to replenish goods, and try implementing similar brands to certain store locations. – Amount Paid – Time of sale – Date of sale – Store details – Payment Type Income Management can look at financial success in each store. If some stores are more successful than others, they can move store managers around to try implement the successful tactics everywhere. Can also implement certain payment techniques if a credit card brand is popular at a specific store – Promotions – Type of Product – Product Brand – Size of Product – Quantity of Product Marketing Management can see which products are the most popular in each store. Can create advertisements that are catered to each individual store location. Can create new store layouts to promote the popular items in store and draw customers in. 3. a) What are some ways to obtain the identity of the customer at the POS and to associate this â€Å"identity† with more detailed information about the customer? b) What business actions could FastFit then take based upon this additional information? Obtaining Customer Identity Associate this Identity with more detailed information Actions based on Information Gathered Have the customer sign up for a FastFit customer card Customer created personal ID that gives the store information on all the customers’ purchases. Store will know what items are desirable to the customer and when they make the most purchases. FastFit can use this information to give the customer promotions towards their favorite items in the form of coupons and promotional emails. Also the store can email customer more information about their favorite brands, and suggestions of similar products the customer might like. Credit Card Information The customer’s credit card gives personal information on where the customer lives and what purchases they have made in the store. The store can put up more focused advertisements in the locations where their customers live. Ask Customers to fill out a survey Survey will gain information about how customers feel about the store and FastFit’s products. They can see if customers feel like the store has issues, and what people feel needs to be addressed with the overall company. They can recognize certain issues and address them directly. These might include changing the overall store atmosphere or the quality of products inside. If customers like a certain aspect of the store, FastFit can emphasize this. Maybe try and have a more diversified product mix or different advertising routine. 4. Assume HQ is responsible (HQ issues orders to suppliers and determines what warehouse should deliver to stores) for replenishing inventory at the stores. a) What information (elements) are needed and how are these used to decide what (the warehouse) sends to each store? b) Where do the information elements come from? (use a table to combine the responses for a and b). c) List two reasons why we didn’t have each store decide what (replenishments) to order from the warehouse? Headquarters Responsibilities Information Elements Needed Source of Information Product Information: – Type of Product (Clothing/Accessory) – Product ID – Sizes of the Product – Product Brand – Price of each Individual Product – Quantity of Product needed Computer checkout system takes all of this information, as products are being purchased and returned in the store. Transaction Information: – Date of Sale – Time of Sale – Amount Paid – Amount Due – Types of Products being sold at the time Computer checkout system in store takes in this information about how much was spent at the store and at which times the most spending occurs. Also managers can see tell when the busiest times of the day, month and year are just by observing customer patterns in the store. Customer Information: – Ages of customers coming into the store – Which gender (male/female) shops most frequently at the store – Which products the customers are purchasing the most – Where does the customer base live – When do the customers purchase the most merchandise Customer database formed by customers that are part of the FastFit customer card club. The personal ID gives info about customers past purchases and their preferences toward certain products. Surveys customers filled out which explains age, gender and store and product preferences. Computer checkout system also records customer purchases to see what people like and how often they visit the store. Store Information: – Sales Promotions occurring – How long the product has been in the store – How many of the same product remain in store – How popular products have been Inventory tracking database in each store keeps track of which items have not been sold. Store management and employees keep track of trends and promotional deals going on within the stores. They can also visually observe which items have been around for longer, and which items have been selling out very quickly. c. Management at HQ controls the replenishments because they can oversee all operations across all of the stores. They have the power to make calculated decision about each store that would benefit the company as a whole. If each store were to replenish the products themselves, they would only replenish what is popular at each time. HQ ensures that each store is receiving the goods that will properly sell in the location that the store is in. HQ can analyze trends on a larger scale, and implement advertising strategies and product mix based on the data trends. If replenishing were left to the individual stores, sales and profit would be lost. 5. a) Draw a system diagram that shows the key information and product flows between FastFit (HQ and Warehouse) and a supplier, including the steps for ordering and invoicing and label each flow descriptively. This diagram will have three circles. b) Compare your drawing with the diagram showing the flows that occur when a customer buys something at a (physical) store and explain why the former is more complicated. 1. HQ decides what needs to go into stores and orders the products from suppliers 2. Supplier sends HQ a confirmation of the order and also sends an invoice for how much money is owed 3. Supplier sends the merchandise to the warehouse 4. HQ pays the supplier for the products 5. HQ contacts the warehouse and confirms that the products have been shipped and accounted for in the warehouse 6. The warehouse sends an invoice slip to HQ for holding the products and sending them out as necessary 7. HQ pays the warehouse the correct amount on invoice slip 1. Customer goes into store and selects an item/items to purchase 2. Store receives money from customer for the purchased product 3. Store records information and sends the info to HQ b. The diagram above shown in the first part of problem 5 is more sophisticated than the latter diagram because it involves many more transactions. HQ must go through a careful decision process even before  ordering the products from the supplier. After ordering the correct items, HQ must ensure that the merchandise reaches the warehouse, and then the store without any issues occurring in between. This entails that HQ pays the supplier and warehouse in time. HQ has to deal with all of the physical decision making as well as financial details of each transaction. HQ pulls each element together. 6. Assume that FastFit headquarters receives and pays invoices from suppliers. a) How do they decide whether (i.e. which information elements does the HQ use) to pay and how much to pay? b) From where do they get the information to make this decision? (use a table to combine responses to a and b). Headquarters Decision Making: Information Elements Needed Source of Information/ Decision Pricing Information: – Product ID – Amount of Products being bought – Price of each different product – Amount of products being bought each season. – Which products FastFit wants to sell and (in the future) which products the customers have shown interest in. Supplier would provide the price of each product. Decision: HQ and supplier would agree on a set price based on how much of the product FastFit would be purchasing. FastFit would want to choose and continue doing business with the supplier based on what the customers have shown interest in Warehouse Information: – Warehouse checks to see that complete order has arrived – Checks for quality of products – Checks to ensure that the correct order has arrives – Records the information about received inventory Warehouse would provide the information about the order. Decision: HQ would pay the warehouse when the information gets relayed that the order was complete and correct. Warehouse and HQ would decide on a set price beforehand for each transaction that the warehouse performs. Delivery Information: – Date and time products are needed by – How quick the delivery takes place – Location of stores from warehouse – Location Supplier would set a price for the delivery of products to the warehouse. Warehouse would set a price for the delivery of products to the stores. Decision: HQ would potentially try and negotiate the price for deliveries with the warehouse and supplier. If the delivery services proved to be reliable HQ would feel satisfied with the price and process. Supplier Information: – Where the supplier is located – Reliability of supplier – How quick the supplier can get the product to the warehouse Supplier provides information about their processes and how much they charge for the products. Decision: HQ would pay the supplier based on how much product they are ordering and if the suppliers asking price is reasonable.

Houstons Land Use Policy Essay

Houston is a large city with very unique qualities that most cities cannot even begin to understand, but is this just Houstonian pride talking? No, actually one of the unique qualities that Houston has is how we handle our land use planning. Houston is well known for not having any zoning ordinances, which has become a well-known topic for a while now. People argue weather our lack of zoning is chaotic, unorthodox, or independent and distinct. Another unique quality that we have is where our political culture stands. Dr. Elazar’s â€Å"Individualistic – Traditionalistic† study of political culture talks about three categories moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic, which entails what category Texas falls in and why. This study of Political culture can help relate to reasons why Houston lacks at land use planning and whether it is for the best or worse. The land use planning in Houston is different from other cities because we don’t have zoning o rdinance, meaning that we can have for example â€Å"the fanciest restaurant in town right next to a tattoo parlor†¦Ã¢â‚¬  ,UH of Architecture Dean Patricia Oliver. Other cities have a different system that involves color-coded maps that let people know where and what they can and can’t have in those properties. Cities that have regulations do it because they believe that if the government doesn’t tell them what to do with the land it would be chaotic. Houston, on the other hand thinks that property owners decide what works best for their property not the government. Even though everything seems unrestricted in Houston we do have a form of organizing certain areas like neighborhoods with â€Å"deed restrictions† where owners voluntarily agree to certain restrictions when they buy property. We also have â€Å"property rights† which means that one the government cannot tell you what to do with your land. Due to the system that Houston uses to administer the land use, most housing becomes affordable an example is also the way Houston evaded the real estate bubble. The broader picture to Houston is that it comes from the biggest state in the U.S, Texas. Texas has a vast amount of people and within these people there  are different types of mindsets but there are also similar ones things like this are what describe are Political culture which the book, Texas Politics 12th edition, defines it as a shared system of values, beliefs and habits of behavior with regard about politics. Dr. Elazar describes political culture as everyone being impacted by the beliefs and values of the dominant groups in society; these groups can range in between three categories of political culture moralistic, Individualistic, and traditionalistic. According to the book, moralistic political culture is when citizens understand the state and the nation as commonwealths designed to further the shared interest of everyone. In Individualistic political culture, citizens understand the state and the nation as marketplaces in which people strive to better their personal welfare, citizen participation is encouraged. In Traditionalistic political culture, citizens technically believe in democracy, but emphasize respect to elite rule within a hierarchal society and citizen participation is not encouraged. Texas stands right in between Individualistic and Traditionalistic in the scale of political culture. Texas is a midpoint between individualistic and traditionalistic; some people think that there is a correlation between the zoning and the political culture in Houston, Texas. Research has shown that the state has a very strong business oriented perspective which means they’re more open to the ideas of the public, Individualistic. This explains how in Houston we don’t have the government tell us where we can do with our property we can put any business where we please. The traditionalistic culture in Texas comes from the way the elite groups are the ones that rule, this idea is active through the projection of restriction with â€Å"deed restrictions† and â€Å"Property rights† where the majority choose what they want or only approve of government activity if they favor to their likings. The land use planning in Houston is unique compared to other cities in the U.S. We have no zoning restrictions meaning we chose where we want are properties and what we do with them. The only exception is when the majority of people make a decision on what can happen on a certain area like a neighborhood. The political culture of Texas, which is in between individualistic and traditionalistic and it is portrayed in the land use planning in Houston. Citations Newell, Charldean, David F. Prindle, and James W. Riddlesperger. â€Å"Texas Political Culture.†Texas Politics. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Print. Teas, Anderew. â€Å"HCC Eagle Online: Login to the Site.† HCC Eagle Online: Login to the Site. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2014.

Explain Mackie's argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Explain Mackie's argument - Essay Example He pokes a hole in all the arguments proclaiming the existence of God. The three propositions in the text above are in contradictions: God’s omnipotence, God being wholly good, ye amongst all these evil exists. If the two are true, then the third will be false, the three being part of the arguments that proclaim the existence of God. In a logical and philosophical argument adherence to the three propositions cannot be consistent. Theologians argue that evil is the balance that God uses to bring goodness, however this argument is certainly a limitation on the omniscience of God. Langtry (2008) points out a good person does not always eliminate evil as far as possible, the resulting understanding from Mackie’s argument. Further, he points out that thw world is better with some evil than without evil, as pain and misery are first order evils which are deductively important parts of second order good which include suffering and heroism when confronted with danger. Therefore the problem of evil is stated in form of second order evil compared against present solution which is

Water Scarcity and Conflict - Prospects for Human Security Essay

Water Scarcity and Conflict - Prospects for Human Security - Essay Example Increasing demand for this important resource is distressing many countries in the globe and a number of avenues are being instituted to avail fresh water to everyone. Water is productive resource to human being considering its diverse use in the society particular in economic and social sector. Water is used to serve different domestic purposes and so is in economic sector where it is used in manufacturing processes, hydropower generation, and agriculture (Smithies, 2011). This clearly manifest that fresh water is a basic human necessity because without it several industrial processes will stall and all life will eventually become extinct. This means that when people feel that their livelihood and survival is threatened by water scarcity it is likely that they will turn hostile owing to fear, desperation and competition to protect the scarce resource. Earth is undoubtedly a water planet but unfortunately, approximately 1% of earth water is available for human use in an easily access ible way in its freshest form from either the lakes or rivers (Arsenault, 2012). Large part of the earth water approximately 97% is in the oceans and seas while the remaining percentage is held in deep underground water table and icecaps. However, unlike other natural resources water is substantially renewed through a natural cycle whereby rain falls from clouds onto the land and into the rivers and finally to the ocean where they evaporate once again and form clouds. At least 44,000 cubic kilometers of water gets on to land annually as the earth’s hydrological system pumps and transfers the water. Geologists estimate that the word boasts of at least 1,700 cubic meters per person, which is the minimum threshold that is required for household, agricultural and industrial use (UNDP, 2006). However, the biggest challenge is the wide disparity in the distribution of this vital resource considering certain countries are endowed with vast water resources while other have less or no ne at all. This difference in availability varies with regions. For instance, countries in Latin America boast of at least 12 times more water per individual compared to those in South Asia. Individuals can understand water scarcity from the dimension of supply and demand equation whereby demand surpasses supply. However, the biggest challenge lies in understanding what is leading to increasing water scarcity and its ultimate consequences. Hydrologists consider 1,000 cubic meters of water per person to be a state of water scarcity and below 500 cubic meters to be absolute scarcity. In most countries around the globe with the exception of perennial arid areas, water has been seen as an unlimited natural resource owing to the seasonal renewal through rainfalls (UNDP, 2006). Because of this reason, human population has continually exploited available water resources with little regard for future costs of overexploitation. People continue to misuse water to the extent that countries wit h adequate water supply owing to consistent rainfall are experiencing high level of scarcity. Most of these countries especially in African continue to battle with drought and crop failure and perennial hunger. It is unfortunate that public view about water security is only focused on scarcity. In other words, people are only concerned about the world running out of water while ignoring an important aspect of water insecurity, which involves mismanagement. Water security revolves around risk and vulnerability. This is evident in societies that have managed to harness the productive

Mareting and design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Mareting and design - Essay Example des the customer with a quality product which satisfies his needs, making it as one of the key reasons that brands still enjoy the popularity amongst its customers and at the same time, attract fresh clientele. The paper would be discussing the ways The Body Shop uses its brand to gain leverage against it competitors in the market and create a niche market position. The Body Shop was founded in 1976 by Anita Roddick, a social activist and environmentalist, who believed that using the natural ingredients are the best way to take care of the body and remain beautiful. It makes a huge range of body care products from natural ingredients from across the world and caters to people of all strata. There are around 700 products under different categories such as: facial skin care; make-up; bath and body; hair; fragrance; gifts and accessories (BodyShop). The products can further be categorized as per the natural ingredients like aloe Aloe Vera cream, musk oil etc. The company was taken over by L’Oreal in 2006 but has retained it brand name. The company prides in using natural products from all corners of the world and contributes to sustainable business practices by ensuring that the ingredients used in the products are from sustainable source where deforestation is not involved or cruelty to animals has not been part of business process. It subscribe to humane cosmetic standard and works towards the welfare of animals and community. Brand can broadly be defined in terms of name, symbol or design that identifies product and services of particular company which can be clearly differentiated from other products in the same category. Brand delivers value and provides the companies with competitive advantage to gain a niche market position. Kotler asserts that in the contemporary environment of highly competitive business, ‘brand building is needed because products are the same’ (Kotler, 2005). Brands ensure that they meet the changing requirements of the people.

BCA Compliance Engineering and Construction Essay Assignment

BCA Compliance Engineering and Construction Essay - Assignment Example The building is located in a town center. 1.2 LIMITATIONS Limitations applied to the document are: No consideration for a detailed requirement for the Australian standards Construction safety act have not been looked at A complete architectural design for the structure not available and The provisions made for the disabled. 1.3 DESIGN DOCUMENTATION The report is based on the design brief and the set of preliminary drawings. Drawing1 Building illustration Drawing 2 Front Elevation of completed structure Drawing 3 Ground floor plan Drawing 4 Basement plan PART 2 BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS BCA Classification Class 7a: Car park and warehouse CLASS 7b: for storage, or display of goods or produce for sale by wholesale. Rise in Storey Five(5) Type of Construction Type A Effective Height Less than 25 meters. Fire Compartment Size Floor Area: 3600 square meters Volume: does not exceed the minimum stated in BCA PART 3: BCA ASSESSMENT 3.1 METHODOLODY The design provided is to be audited against t he Deemed-to- Satisfy Provisions of the Building Code of Australia, 2010(BCA). The areas discussed have been assessed to meet the performance based solutions: 3.2.0 Fire Resistance For fire stability of the structure, the BCA requires its resistance and stability, the compartments and modes of separation as well as the allowances made for protection against fire. 3.2.1 Fire Resistance and Stability The structure constructed should remain stable during fire to allow evacuation. Its elements should resist any spread of fire. This must comply with the purpose of the structure, intensity of the fire, the fire systems in place, size of the fire compartment and any interventions made by the fire brigade. The material used for the building must limit smoke produced when the building is burning. The fumes produced should not be toxic so as to allow the occupants to evacuate the building. 3.2.2 Compartment and Separation The floor area should be greater than the atria. An open area should be available near the building. This is to be used for evacuation purposes, access by the fire fighting vehicles and free from any kind of storage with exceptions for electricity substation and a pump house. A fire wall constructed must meet the FRL requirements. The materials used should not easily collapse from the heat caused by fire. Since the lift will connect to more than two levels, it should be separated from the structure. 3.2.3 Protection of Openings(BCA VOL 1 195) The building should have a minimum of two exits with a direct access to a road or an open arena. The open space should be within the structure, be accessible and not used as a storage facility. The access road must be free from any obstruction for emergency vehicles, enable pedestrians to easily move between the building and the access road. The maximum area for atria is 5000 square meters. Wall openings should be protected by automatic doorways and windows. Elements of the structure should not allow fire to reach the exit, public corridors, and adjacent buildings. Heat and smoke that arise during fire should be limited to allow the time needed to exit the building, the purpose of the structure, and access to fire systems placed in the structure. 3.3.0 Accessibility and Egress The BCA requirements for access and egress look at the provisions made for escape exits to be constructed and considerations made for the disabled. 3.3.1 Provisions for Escape (BCA VOL 1 153) In general, not less than two exits must be

Administering the Death Penalty to Child Molestors Term Paper

Administering the Death Penalty to Child Molestors - Term Paper Example In a vast majority of cases, child molesters execute these behaviors knowing that they are unlawful but they cannot resist their intrinsic desire to indulge in such acts. There is also a category of offenders who do not consider such acts unlawful particularly when the child enjoys this kind of behavior. Summing up, child molestation is the execution of sexual offence against any child that is below the age of consent for sex. Child molestation is a crime that does not happen quite infrequently. â€Å"According to the U. S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics, on any given day there are approximately 234,000 sex offenders who were convicted of rape or sexual assault and are in the custody or control of correction agencies† (â€Å"Sex Offender Statistics†). The U. S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics records that as many as 4300 child molesters have been released from imprisonment in 15 states across the US in just one year, and out of these who have been released, about 3.3 per cent have been rearrested within just three years after the release for having caused another sex offense to a new child (â€Å"Sex Offender Statistics†). This percentage excludes the freed child molesters who did commit the crime after getting released once and did not get caught or imprisoned for the second offence. From these statistics, the ineffectiveness of the current state of punishment for the offence of child molestation is quite evident. This imparts the need for a radical change in the policy of punishment for the child molesters. The current policy that provides the child molesters with an opportunity to be released from punishment after some time is totally unacceptable because harming a child is a heinous crime for which t he offender must not be provided with any opportunity of rehabilitation. A vast majority of the child offenders are habitual criminals and there is little surety, if any, that they would not

The Triple Constraints Model of Project Management Essay - 1

The Triple Constraints Model of Project Management - Essay Example As outline above the fist dimension is that of the project itself which he defines as â€Å"an endeavour†¦designed to produce some novel, unitary objective from which we expect to derive new benefits† (p. 5).   The key is to understand what needs to be accomplished (the plan) and the amount of time to accomplish it while still ensuring quality.   Flexibility, innovation, cooperation and a sense of urgency are important characteristics.  Ã‚   Turner (1991) stresses that the project manager must focus on the results, what it is the project is to accomplish.   Focusing on anything less increases the opportunity for failure or deviation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ensure that all work done delivers essential project objectives† (Turner, 1991: 7).   To accomplish this five essential functions are involved: â€Å"scope of the work, the organization (the people who do the work), quality, cost and duration† (Turner, 1991: 7).   The last three he stresses, although impor tant, are merely constraints; without the project or people there would be no project.     The second dimension of this theory is the management process, which takes the vision or dream and makes it the reality, the outcome.   This encompasses a four part process for successful outcome, each important and overlapping requiring process definition that looks beyond department boundaries to a seamless flow requiring cooperation and multiple, simultaneous effort by teamwork.   These for stages begin with the proposed idea and beginning of the project move onto execution and process.

JETZ Fidelity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

JETZ Fidelity - Essay Example JETZ expatriates can definitely influence the expectations of its expatriates and help in their adjustment to the new work environment (Hofstede, 1983). In addition, Portuguese business culture communication styles should also be assessed by JETZ and the manner through which corporate values and organizational culture are transmitted. For instance, is it through socialization? In some cultures, exchange of favors, information sharing and friendships are critical means of winning and developing trust. Logically, JETZ managers who are sent to Portugal ought to have such characteristics as patience and being open to socialization with locals. Apparently, Tom, Mark and Jane have experienced a whole host of changes in being sent to a global post. On a personal level, they are required to undergo a transition from an environment to which they were accustomed to one which is very unfamiliar. Naturally, this required modifications in their living habits, and entailed finding a healthy, novel balance between their work and personal preoccupations. For a majority of individuals, this expends too much time and effort. Thus, the human resources department of JETZ ought to take action to prepare them so that they may cope with these difficulties in adjustment. The research of Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) indicate that adjustment to the cross-cultural facets of a global assignment requires three distinct personal abilities, as follows: 1) the capacity to sustain a valued sense of self; 2) the ability to associate to host nationals; 3) the ability to intellectually appreciate the belief systems that underpin behaviors in the host country. If Tom, Mark and Jane were oriented with these traits, it would have been easier for them to adjust because their expectations were more effectively managed (Black, 1990b; Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985). If they possessed such traits, it would have been more probable for them to adjust easily in their Faro assignment. In a related

Cherokee nation Essay Example for Free

Cherokee nation Essay Wilma Pearl Mankiller was born on November 18th in Tahlequah, the capital of the Cherokee nation, Oklahoma. She lived in Mankiller Flats till she was ten years old. Then her family was moved to California when the Indian Affair Relocation program took place. Her father Charlie Mankiller was a Cherokee whereas her mother Irene Mankiller was of Dutch-Irish origin. Wilma had four sisters and six brothers. Wilma’s great grandfather was one of the many Cherokees who along with Choctaws, Creeks, and other Indian tribes moved along the Trail of Tears to Oklahoma . This was during the removal period in 1830’s. Here in Oklahoma the family was allotted 160 acres of land in eastern Oklahoma at a place called Mankiller Flats, but the land was rugged and it was difficult to eke out a life from it. Thus the family was poor and when Wilma’s father inherited the land he found it difficult to give a good life to his family. He managed to make some money from growing strawberries, peanuts, berries and green beans, cutting timber and picking crops when seasonal work was available. Food for the family was from the vegetable garden supplemented by wild game. Thus when the government’s offer to relocate them once more cropped up Charlie Mankiller was tempted by the prospects of a better life. The family did not wish to move, nevertheless they reached San Francisco only to discover that the relocation program promises were not fulfilled and there was no money. Even employment was very often not available. The children did not like California and was homesick. In her autobiography â€Å"Mankiller: A Chief and her People† Mankiller wrote, â€Å"I experienced my own Trail of Tears when I was a young girl. No one pointed a gun at me or at members of my family. No show of force was used. It was not necessary. Nevertheless, The United States government through the Bureau of Indian Affairs, was once again trying to settle the ‘Indian problem’ by removal. I learned through this ordeal about the fear and anguish that occur when you give up your home, your community, and everything you have ever known to move far away to a strange place. I cried for days, not unlike the children who had stumbled down the Trail of Tears so many years before. I wept tears that came from deep within the Cherokee part of me. They were tears from my history, from my tribe’s past. They were Cherokee tears. † In California Wilma completed her high school and enrolled herself for higher studies. She attended Skyline Junior College and then Francisco State College. It was here that she met her future husband Hector Hugo Olaya. They had two daughters, Felicia born in 1964 and Gina born in 1966. While in college Wilma met the Native Americans who reclaimed the Alcatraz Island. for the Native American people. Many Indians made the bold move to move onto Alcatraz and Wilma got influenced by it. She cherished the thought that her mission in life was to serve her people. She longed for independence to work for her community and this involvement with the community was the reason for the conflict which arose in her marriage. In 1974, she and Hector Hugo were divorced. In the 1960’s there were many social and political movements in America. When Alcatraz was forcefully occupied Wilma Mankiller became aware that the Indians also had rights and these rights had to be protected. She became involved in it and wanted to serve her people to the best of her ability. After Alcatraz she got involved in helping the Pitt River tribe in northern California reclaim their ancestral land. For seven years she worked for them and this prepared her to return to Oklahoma. When her father passed away in 1971 due to kidney failure Wilma was shattered. It â€Å"tore through my spirit like a blade of lightening† she says in her autobiography. Though the family returned to Oklahoma for the burial of Charlie Mankiller, Wilma returned to California after the funeral. Wilma too soon became a prey to kidney failure and though initially it could be treated, she had to undergo surgery and in 1990 she underwent a kidney transplant. Her brother Donald donated his kidney for her. In 1976, two years after her divorce she had returned to Oklahama for good. Here she enrolled herself in a graduate course at the University of Arkansas. Wilma’s will to live and serve her people can be seen in her determination to get well, once when she was involved in a terrible accident and it was thought that she would not survive. Second time was when she developed a muscle disease known as myasthenia gravis. Her life was threatened but her strong will of survival made her fit again.

Banks Mat Review Essay Example for Free

Banks Mat Review Essay Robert Banks and Bernice M. Ledbetter believe the subject of leadership to be one worth exploring, and they do so in their book much to our profit. In this short book, Banks and Ledbetter begin by presenting the overall question they want to answer: Do Christians core convictions shape their views and practices of leadership or are they affected by wider cultural assumptions? [1]The book begins by exploring the many reasons for the increased interest in leadership today. The authors offer a plethora of reasons, not withholding the greatly increased pace of change, and they also set out some other factors for understanding leadership, including the comparison and contrast between a ‘leader’ and the qualities of ‘leadership’. Banks and Ledbetter take great care to ask challenging questions. This practice aids in the development of the book. In the opening chapters they begin by defining leadership as involving a person, group, or organization who shows the way in an area of life. [2] The authors also provide a strong distinction between management and leadership while also showing the importance of these two roles to work together. The foundation of the writing is supported by the claims towards the importance  of the study of leadership. Banks and Ledbetter continue on to explore leadership in a wider range of historical and Biblical contexts. They work from religious and Christian perspectives and work outward towards cultural influences. The authors share insight as it relates to the biblical, historical and contemporary perspectives, covering the accounts of the Apostle Paul, historical models such as the Benedictine tradition, Lutheran, Presbyterian and Pentecostal. They continue by exploring trait, contingency and transformational leadership. Chapters three and four provide the most specific writings on the topic of leadership. In these chapters Banks and Ledbetter draw attention to the raw spiritual, theological, and religious concepts of leadership. Here the authors conduct a case study of a significant author of leadership material, Stephen Covey. It is revealed that many readers are influenced by his Mormon faith without truly understanding or discerning the undertones.[3] This continues with an exploration of other perceived authorities on the topic of leadership. One such study is of Laura Beth Jones, an woman writer with increasing influence as it relates to leadership. Chapter five addresses how to translate practices of leadership into individual context through the use of three basic yet important values: faithfulness, integrity, and a servant-like attitude. Exploration of these three traits is undergirder with discussion of authors such as Robert Greenleaf. He is one of many leaders who brought into popular leadership thinking the idea of ‘servant leadership’.The book closes by offering examples in the form of case-studies. These studies provide deeper insight into the foundational qualities of successful leaders over the span of several years and many different context. This offers the reader a broader view of leadership by showing its success in many different forms and context. CONCRETE RESPONSE While reading through each chapter I was challenged to consider the conflicts I have faced that came as the result of lacking a manager to accompany my leadership. As a pastor, I am a natural leader. I tend to seek out change while searching for ways to constantly make things better and more efficient. About two years ago I was in a conflict with several of the leaders in our church. The conflict revolved around our misunderstanding of  each others approach and roles in leadership. As an proponent of change, I was offended by their seeming lack of faith in pursuing a broader reach in ministry and our effectiveness in the community. As managers, they were more apt to move slowly and could only visualize the problems that would need to be addressed in order to achieve the vision that was laid forth by me. After studying the viewpoints of Banks and Ledbetter I can now see how we could have easily been on the same page and shared the same goal while simply looking from distinct perspectives. I have now began to wonder how many other relationships could have been mended by simply understanding the role that each party played. I have a tendency to assume that others will automatically view things in the same way that I have. This has often led to great disappointment or great feelings of being misunderstood. In this way my passion can easily become focused on the wrong thing and people could easily become the target of that passion. REFLECTION While the book does a great job of exploring the topic of leadership, because of the breadth and depth of the topic many questions remain. Taking into account the authors definitions of managers and leaders, how do the two roles successfully communicate their intentions to one another? It is very possible for the two roles to coexist with proper acknowledgment of one another. How do the two operate together effectively without disrespecting or disregarding the importance of each role. Also, how does one know which leadership style works best in a given context? Does it take an extended period of trial and error to discover the proper styles? How do followers or even managers respond to a constantly changing leadership style? This book could have been greatly improved with a more comprehensive study of the specified leadership topics. The writing feels much like a generic overview of very important topics. While well written and engaging, I am left wanting as it relates to determining how to not only incorporate the leadership styles but also choose the style that is most fitting. This book feels like a movie that ended too soon. Leaving readers wondering what do with the brief information provided. ACTION With a fresh view of the information given by Banks and Ledbetter, I now have the information needed to implement a healthier leadership style that includes a clarity of my role as an agent of change. This plan is broken into two distinct parts. First, to properly identify the contexts that guide the view of leadership within the leadership team of the church that I pastor. What types of leaders have they encountered in the past? Are they open to change or resistant to it? This objective will be accomplished through the scheduling of one on one meetings with each leader. These meeting will allow me the opportunity to engage each leader in a meaningful conversation about the leadership styles they are most comfortable with. With this information I will be equipped to better serve these leaders by communicating with them in a way that they are most likely to receive. This is based upon Banks and Ledbetters observation of the broad idea of leadership many people carry. Secondly, I will create a comprehensive list of the core beliefs that will guide our leadership team. For those considering becoming parts of our church, how do they know the values that determine our decision making as leaders? This list will answer that question. It will become the core values for current and even future leaders. This comprehensive list will incorporate biblical teachings from Jesus as well as the Apostle Pauls qualifications from 1 Peter and the epistles to Timothy. By outlining these core values, we create accountability, an attribute that could also allow for congregants and members alike to feel more comfortable engaging with the vision of our church by being secure in the direction and the values that guide us. BIBLIOGRAPHY Banks, Robert and Ledbetter, Bernice â€Å"Reviewing Leadership: A Chriatian Evaluation of Current Approaches†, Grand Rapids, MI Baker Publishing Group 2004

Role of affect and emotions in prejudice

Role of affect and emotions in prejudice Prejudice is an intriguing topic in social psychology. Most studies focus on its cognitive and social representations and rarely do people notice the significance of affect in prejudice. In this essay, the focus of interest is on affect and emotions as a theoretical base in understanding prejudice. The role of emotions in intergroup processes and prejudice is explored, coupled with the discussion on the antecedents, nature, and consequences of intergroup emotions, which is illustrated by the specificity of intergroup emotions and its resulting behavioral tendencies. The relationship between intergroup emotion and intergroup forgiveness also shed light on devising strategies to reduce prejudice. Prejudice is a preconceived judgment towards a group and its members (Myers, 2010). This evaluation can be either positive or negative. In the intergroup context, prejudice is a group-based attitude elicited by intergroup interaction (Smith, 1993). According to ABCs of attitudes, Myers states that attitude is composed by affect (feelings), behavior tendency (inclination to act) and cognition (beliefs). Affect plays an important role in prejudice (attitude). To differentiate prejudice, discrimination and stereotype in simple terms, prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is a behavior, and stereotype is a belief towards a group and its individual members. They intertwine with one another. Prejudice and stereotype are neutral in comparison to discrimination which often refers to negative behavior attributed to prejudicial attitudes. To study intergroup processes, emotion is narrowed down to intergroup emotion while groups are divided into ingroups and outrgoups. Intergroup emotion is an emotion in the intergroup context. It includes emotions felt towards ones own group and emotions felt towards the outgroup. The role of emotions in intergroup processes lies in emotions provoking peoples reactions and responses to outgroups, which in turn affects intergroup relations. The antecedents of intergroup emotions are (1) group membership, (2) intergroup interactions and (3) appraisals. Firstly, group membership can be explained by self-categorization theory, self-discrepancy theory and social identity theory. According to the self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher Wetherell, 1987), people define themselves in personal terms and in terms of group memberships in the social context. When people identify themselves as group members, this ingroup membership becomes part of the self; this extended social self (group) makes group membership and intergroup interactions evoke emotional responses (Mackie Smith, 2002). According to the self-discrepancy theory, people often match their actual self with their ideal self and ought self. The greater the discrepancy between the matches, the greater the psychological discomfort. This is an emotion felt towards ones self and group. Mackie and Smith think that negative emotions are aroused when people p erceive the attributes of their ingroup do not correspond to those they wish or believe their ingroup ought to possess. Mackie and Smith give examples of dejection-related emotions including dissatisfaction, disappointment, sadness and hopelessness while agitation-related emotions include apprehension, nervousness, tension, threatenedness and uneasiness. Social identity theory (Brown, 2000) proposes ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation. In other words, ingroup love may extend to outgroup hatred. Ingroup identification can give rise to hostile reactions to outgroups in forms of prejudice and discrimination. This illustrates an emotion one felt towards the outgroup. Social Identity Theory is an example of ingroup bias resulting from ones purpose to enhance self-esteem by increasing the positivity of ingroups and the negativity of outgroups. Another manifestation of intergroup bias is realistic conflict theory, an ingroup bias which stems from hostility in response to a competiti ve and threatening outgroup (Shah, Brazy Higgins, 2002). The regulatory and affective needs are fulfilled through ingroup bias. Secondly, intergroup interaction is antecedent to intergroup emotions. The nature of specific interactions between groups acts as a source of differentiated affective reactions (Mackie Smith, 2002). For example, interactions that produce positive affect can promote the liking of further interaction with outgroup members. This shows the nature of interaction between groups as a determinant of emotions. This is further explored in the following discussion on intergroup relations. Thirdly, appraisals are also antecedent to intergroup emotions. Devos, Silver, Mackie and Smith (2002) describe the appraisal theories of emotion as a situation or an event can bring about emotions when the individual concerns, goals and motives are favored or harmed. Appraisals are a configuration of cognitions or beliefs, which triggers emotions. Ingroup emotions are triggered by group-based appraisals. For instance, if the social identity or integrity of the ingroup is threatened by the outgroup, the ingroup members may experience fear and anxiety. Appraisals cause emotions, which in turn correspond to its specific action tendencies. The nature of intergroup emotions lies in intergroup relations. Intergroup relations can be exemplified by integrated threat theory and image theory. Integrated threat theory reflects the role of threat in intergroup relations. Stephan and Renfro (2002) focus on four types of threat-realistic threats, symbolic threats, intergroup anxiety and negative stereotyping. Realistic threats are threats to the group welfare including threats to the ingroup wellbeing. Stephan and Renfro (2002) propose that the concept of realistic threats comes from realistic group conflict theory, which argues that competition for limited resources giving rise to outgroup prejudice so realistic threats can have a broader denotation meaning any threat to the group welfare, not just competition for limited resources. Symbolic threat is an intangible threat to the ingroup values and beliefs. According to Dovidio and Gaertner (1996), intergroup anxiety includes discomfort, apprehension, fear and disgust owing to t he expectation of negative results in intergroup interactions. Stephan and Renfro (2002) believe that there are negative psychological outcomes (embarrassment), negative behavioral outcomes (exploitation or physical harm) and negative evaluations by the both ingroup and outgroup members. Negative stereotypes are simplifications and guidelines for social interactions leading people think the outgroup behaves detrimentally to the ingroup. In the integrated theory, the above four threats are considered to cause outgroup prejudice, which includes negative affect associated with outgroups arousing negative emotions like dislike, disapproval and hatred towards the outgroup. Stephan and Renfro (2002) believe that the antecedents of threats stem from strong identification with the ingroup, frequent negative contact with outgroup members, disparities in the status of the two groups and ignorance of the outgroup. On the flip side, the image theory describes intergroup emotions on the basis of relationship patterns and outgroup images. Relationship pattern are described in terms of goal compatibility, status equality and power equality. Thus, an outgroup image is formed corresponding to the relationship pattern, thereby arousing specific intergroup emotions and behavioral orientation. There are two symmetric images where the two groups involved perceive the intergroup relations in the same way. Brewer and Alexander (2002) describe enemy image as an intense competition between two groups similar in power and status with incompatible goals. This intergroup relationship produces a feeling of threat. This arouses an affect of anger and prompts a behavioral tendency to eradicate the threat by containment or attack. Ally image is characterized with goal compatibility, equal status and power between groups (Brewer Alexander, 2002). This produces an image of nonthreatening with positive attributes. Hence, emotions like admiration and trust are generated and it facilitates the behavioral inclination of intergroup cooperation. Apart from the aforesaid, there are asymmetric relationships having mutually incompatible intergroup goal interdependence and differing in power and status. Barbarian image arises when the relationship has incompatible goals with the ingroup having lower status but higher power. The outgroup is then seen as evil and destructive. Affects like fear and intimidation are likely to be experienced by the ingroup so its behavioral orientation tends to adopt a defensive protection. When the ingroup is weaker and lower in status, sentiments like jealousy and resentment towards the outgroup are elicited. Behavioral orientation like resistance or rebellion is expected. This associates with the imperialist image. Expressing and decoding emotions also play a part in intergroup relations. Emotional interactions between people involve feeling, expressing and perceiving (Leyens, Demoulin, Desert, Vaes Philipot, 2002). If one of the above goes wrong, intergroup relations is likely to be jeopardized and prejudice will arise. Inadequate expressions and decoding of emotions may harm the intergroup interaction, leading to reciprocal misunderstandings at the level of feeling, expressing and perceiving. Such misunderstanding makes ingroup members fear, prevent or reject subsequent encounters with outgroup members. Hence, a vicious cycle is formed and it reinforces existing prejudice and discrimination. Based on the above discussion on the antecedents and nature of intergroup emotions, people experience emotions on behalf of their own group as they see themselves as a group member and others as fellow group members. These emotions make people manifest specific behavioral tendencies like collective action, effort in improvement of the intergroup relations and so on. Prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination are also consequences of intergroup emotions. Specific emotions also correspond to different patterns of behavioral tendencies. Action tendency refers to the impulses or inclinations toward a particular action. In the intergroup context, group-based appraisals of the situation or event often trigger specific intergroup emotions, which in turn trigger particular action tendencies and promote certain behaviors. According to Devos, Silver, Mackie and Smith (2002), fear and anxiety prompt ingroup members to keep away from the outgroup while anger generates a motivation to attack or ag gress the outgroup; disgust and contempt trigger avoidance and separation while resentment and frustration spark off resistance and actions against the outgroup. These behavioral tendencies result from intergroup emotions. The specificity of intergroup emotions and behavioral tendencies can be explained by Intergroup Emotions Theory (IET). IET is grounded on self-categorization-the mental representations of self and group. When group membership is rooted in the self-concept, individuals care about situations and events concerning the group. This demonstates the emotional significance in intergroup situations. According to Devos, Silver, Mackie and Smith (2002), ingroup members often develop fear towards a threatening and powerful outgroup; group conflicts generate anger; frustration shows up when the goals and actions of ingroup are blocked by outgroup. An outgroup violating moral standards breeds disgust. Resentment results on seeing outgroup enjoying underserved benefits. Specific inclinations of behavior t follow suit. Anger and frustration cause resistance and aggression. Fear can prompt ingroup protection and escape from the disadvantaged situation. Disgust and contempt deter interactions with an outgroup. Mackie and Smith (2002) believe that there is a limitation for predicting corresponding behaviors. The prediction can only be an action tendency rather than a concrete behavior because actual behaviors are constrained by situational factors and social norms. Action tendencies are deduced from affects and emotions so they can only represent an impulse or intention of actions. Mackie and Smith gave an example stating the constraint of situation factors concerning the presence of an outgroup or the means for the ingroup to act accordingly. Further example of social norms is that an ingroup having an inclination to attack and aggress the outgroup cannot display their aggression and act out due to social sanctions. Mackie and Smith suggest that an action tendency can be fulfilled by different concrete behaviors. For example, aggression can be elicited in terms of verbal aggression or physical aggression, which can prompt many other alternative concrete behaviors. On the other hand, the correlation between intergroup emotions and intergroup forgiveness is worthy-of-note. Noor, Brown and Prentice (2008) define intergroup forgiveness as a process which involves making a decision to learn new aspects about one-self and ones group-ones emotions, thoughts, and capability to inflict harm on others. This reflection on intergroup emotions and intergroup relations does not mean to devalue the severity and consequences of misdeeds, but to reverse the negativity of affect between the groups. Intergroup emotions play an important role in the willingness to engage in forgiveness. Emotions like pity, guilt and sympathy can melt peoples heart of stone and motivate them to forgive. Experiencing empathy (compassion and sympathy) for an individual outgroup member can produce more positive attitudes towards the outgroup as a whole, thereby enabling forgiveness. Nevertheless, the willingness to forgive is difficult to achieve at the group level. Noor, Brown and P rentice (2008) illustrate that some group members may be willing to forgive the outgroup but they might withhold or withdraw their forgiveness in fear of shaking their ingroup loyalty. The above correlation between intergroup emotions and intergroup forgiveness sheds light on devising strategies to reduce prejudice. Intergroup forgiveness can be seen as a crucial step towards reconciliation. Intergroup reconciliation is much more than conflict resolution and the cessation of conflict. Intergroup forgiveness can motivate the ingroup to view the world from the outgroups perspective and standpoint with the intention to clarify misunderstandings, address mutual concerns and eliminate prejudice. The role of contact in reducing prejudice lies in promoting positive affects and intergroup friendship. Mackie and Smith (2002) discover that the number of acquaintances has an effect on prejudice, which is significantly mediated by prejudice. Their research analysis discovers that acquaintances reduced negative emotions and increased positive emotions, both of which reduced prejudice. Mackie and Smith discover that the closeness of the relationship can significantly reduce prejudice when participants are aware of different group membership. Oskamp (2000) proposes the motivational approach of reducing feelings of threat from an outgroup, demonstrating that the outcomes of ingroups and outgroups are interdependent, and accentuating that each individual is accountable for intergroup events. This strategy corresponds to the Integrated Threat Theory and tackles some of the antecedents of threat like disparities in the status of the two groups. An antecedent of threat like frequent negative contact with outgroup members can be tackled by promoting favorable and rewarding intergroup contact to reduce prejudice. Another antecedent of threat like ignorance of the outgroup can be compensated by eliminating misunderstandings. This involves the appropriate expression and decoding of emotions between groups. Due to the illusion of transparency, most people have an impression that their expression of emotions is especially transparent for outgroups, but they are in fact less accurately perceived. This communication gap hinders favora ble intergroup contact and reinforces existing prejudice. Hence, ingroup members may need to pay extra efforts to show their emotions to outgroupers to prevent prejudice. Myers (2010) suggests we can use guilt to motivate ourselves to break the prejudice habit. It is applicable in terms of collective guilt which urges collective action serving to change existing intergroup relations, correct past injustices and reduce ongoing inequality. As unequal status breeds prejudice, seeking cooperative and equal-status relationships can help reduce prejudice (Myers, 2010). The antecedent of threat-strong identification with the ingroup leads to ingroup bias (intergroup bias). This bias can be reduced by fostering a sense of belonging with outgroup members to satisfy peoples affective needs. This corresponds to our understanding of the social identity theory that explains ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation. This sense of belonging arouses positive emotions of love, support and liking, in order to reduce negative prejudice. To wrap up, the role of affect and emotions in prejudice cannot be underestimated. It is significant to grasp an understanding of correlations and causal relationships among affect, emotions, intergroup processes, intergroup emotions, behavioral tendencies, intergroup forgiveness and prejudice. With these understandings, affective aspect of prejudice can eventually be tackled and reduced. (2500 words)

Free Essay on Shakespeares Macbeth - The Character of Lady Macbeth :: Free Essay Writer

The Evil Character of Lady Macbeth  Ã‚      In Shakespeare's Macbeth, Lady Macbeth is made to act as a catalyst in Lord Macbeth's evildoings. Even though Lord Macbeth is generally the one to have the final say in the many killings that take place in the play, Lady Macbeth plays the role of a villain alongside him. She mocks her Lord if he frets over something she has instructed him to do, saying he would be less of a man if he does not follow through on their plan (I. vii. 56-57). She gives Lord Macbeth a short lecture in deceptiveness when they are planning to kill King Duncan (I. vi. 73-78). She also prepared the daggers for Macbeth to kill Duncan in advance (II. ii. 15-16). Though her Lord was still having doubts, she was, in the most literal sense, ready to go in for the kill. Clearly demonstrating another villainous characteristic other than self- gain, Lady Macbeth shows the fear of getting caught when she unintentionally gives herself away in her sleep (V. i. 33, 37-42, 44-47, 53-55, 65-67, 69-72). Though her fear can suppress itself during a conscious state of being, she can do nothing about it when she is asleep.   Throughout the play and leading up to her eventual suicide, Lady Macbeth slowly weakens. Yet, in the beginning of the play, she acts as if she is unstoppable. When Macbeth has his doubts and fears about murdering the loyal Duncan, Lady Macbeth chastises him, calling him everything from a coward to a helpless baby (I. vii. 39-49, 53-67). She even offers to do it herself, possibly to make Macbeth feel that he's even more cowardly because a woman is offering to do "his" job. This pushes Macbeth to kill, though these are the actions that will eventually lead to both of their demises later in the play. Macbeth tries to convince Lady Macbeth, as well as himself, that she is wrong: 3 Prithee, peace. I dare do all that may become a man. Who dares more is none. (I. vii. 50-52) However, Macbeth does not seem to fully convince her, because he is still mocked by his wife. Whether he failed to convince himself or to convince his Lady is irrelevant; he went through with the murder anyhow. Not only does Lady Macbeth push her husband to do things he does not want to, but she also informs him that his face is too easy to read. Free Essay on Shakespeare's Macbeth - The Character of Lady Macbeth :: Free Essay Writer The Evil Character of Lady Macbeth  Ã‚      In Shakespeare's Macbeth, Lady Macbeth is made to act as a catalyst in Lord Macbeth's evildoings. Even though Lord Macbeth is generally the one to have the final say in the many killings that take place in the play, Lady Macbeth plays the role of a villain alongside him. She mocks her Lord if he frets over something she has instructed him to do, saying he would be less of a man if he does not follow through on their plan (I. vii. 56-57). She gives Lord Macbeth a short lecture in deceptiveness when they are planning to kill King Duncan (I. vi. 73-78). She also prepared the daggers for Macbeth to kill Duncan in advance (II. ii. 15-16). Though her Lord was still having doubts, she was, in the most literal sense, ready to go in for the kill. Clearly demonstrating another villainous characteristic other than self- gain, Lady Macbeth shows the fear of getting caught when she unintentionally gives herself away in her sleep (V. i. 33, 37-42, 44-47, 53-55, 65-67, 69-72). Though her fear can suppress itself during a conscious state of being, she can do nothing about it when she is asleep.   Throughout the play and leading up to her eventual suicide, Lady Macbeth slowly weakens. Yet, in the beginning of the play, she acts as if she is unstoppable. When Macbeth has his doubts and fears about murdering the loyal Duncan, Lady Macbeth chastises him, calling him everything from a coward to a helpless baby (I. vii. 39-49, 53-67). She even offers to do it herself, possibly to make Macbeth feel that he's even more cowardly because a woman is offering to do "his" job. This pushes Macbeth to kill, though these are the actions that will eventually lead to both of their demises later in the play. Macbeth tries to convince Lady Macbeth, as well as himself, that she is wrong: 3 Prithee, peace. I dare do all that may become a man. Who dares more is none. (I. vii. 50-52) However, Macbeth does not seem to fully convince her, because he is still mocked by his wife. Whether he failed to convince himself or to convince his Lady is irrelevant; he went through with the murder anyhow. Not only does Lady Macbeth push her husband to do things he does not want to, but she also informs him that his face is too easy to read.

Cold War :: essays research papers

There are two boys at school who really hate each other. One just can’t stand the other’s existence. The odd thing is that they don’t know why they hate each other. Another odd thing is that they have never fought. They have come pretty close, standing toe-to-toe; staring at each other, but one of them always backs off. Whenever they face off, each of them has his own squad of cronies, ready to jump in at the twitch of an eye. What started as two guys accidentally bumping into each other could quickly escalate into an all out brawl at the drop of a dime. The silence is deafening. The two boys’ stares are cold and alarmingly deep. Their fists are clenched and their jaws are tightly closed. Their breathing becomes rapid. Rage wells up and fills their eyes. Onlookers hold their breath in anticipation of the carnage that is to come. The whole school knows that if these two actually threw down, there would be no holding back. Hearing the lack of noise and seeing the circle of kids, teachers, coaches, and the school resource officers come rushing to the scene. The two boys slowly back away from each other, neither one taking his eyes off the other. Everyone goes back to what they were doing, but the cloud of tension still hangs thick in the air. Other kids wonder why these two never actually fight. With so much hate for one another it seems as though they should have clashed by now. The answer is simple. Each one knows that his hatred for the other is so intense, so fierce, and so pent up that if it were ever unleashed on the other, there would be no way to save his life. Each one also realizes that there is a slight chance that the other is stronger, quicker, more agile, and a better fighter. He may actually lose, which would mean certain death, as the rage in the other’s heart is just as fierce as his. They don’t fight because they know the consequences would be severe, no matter how the conflict turned out. Imagine what would happen if one of the boys decided to throw a punch. Another would surely follow. They would have continued beating each other until one of them was annihilated. The friends of the defeated one would retaliate, and the friends of the victor would defend.

Alcoholism :: social issues Drinking Alcohol Essays

Alcoholism Alcoholism, is an illness involving the excessive use of alcoholic beverages, whether it's a can of beer or other sources such as vodka, and whiskey etc. It often affects a lot of people and their families. I will discuss the symptoms of alcoholism. I will continue into the effects of alcoholism. Then conclude with the treatment of the disease. It is a very serious disease. Alcoholism has been often been thought of as a symptom of a psychological or social problem, or as a learned, behavior to cope with the everyday problems peoples lives. More recently alcoholism has become recognized disease of it's own Alcoholism usually develops over a period of a few years. Early symptoms include spending an excessive amount of limited income on alcohol. The availability of the alcohol influences the person's choice of friends and the things that they do. Alcohol becomes used as more of a relaxer than as a casual beverage. At first, the alcoholic may have a high tolerance of alcohol, drinking more and showing less effects than other drinkers. Alcohol begins to be more important than the persons relationships, work, or even their health. The person progresses by losing control over their drinking and are not able to control their habit. A physical addiction may come later to avoid the effects of a hangover. The effects on major organ systems include a wide range of digestive disorders such as ulcers, inflammation of the pancreas, and cirrhosis of the liver. The nervous system can also be permanently damaged. Blackouts, hallucinations, and extreme tremors may occur to the person as a direct result of drinking alcohol. Studies have evidence that shows that heavy or even moderate drinking during pregnancy can cause serious damage to the unborn child. This is known as fetal alcohol syndrome. About 10 percent of all the adult drinkers in the U.S. are considered alcoholics or they have some sort of drinking problem. The consumption of alcohol is currently rising in the U.S., and other countries like the U.S.S.R. and some of the European countries. There is also an increase of alcohol-related problems in other nations, including the Third World. Specialized treatment facilities within general or psychiatric hospitals are rapidly increasing in number. One of them is known as Charter. Earlier and better treatment has led to high recovery rates. In addition to physical complications and withdrawal symptoms, treatment involves counseling and group therapy such as AA are directed at complete recovery from the symptoms from alcoholism.

Encounter Part Ii– John Mcphee

Encounter Part II–John Mcphee An Island introduces Charles Fraser and David Brower, the two on a tour of Cumberland Island, Georgia. Charles Fraser, a real estate developer in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina with David Brower, a conservationist, the leader of a conservation organization called Friends of the Earth, the most effective single person on the cutting edge of conservation in this country.Charles Fraser has obtained 3000 acres of undeveloped Cumberland Island and he has bent over backwards in previous developments to preserve as much of the original landscape as he could, but he considers all environmentalists to be â€Å"druids† who will sacrifice people to save trees. Fraser considers himself a true conservationist, and he will say that he thinks of most so-called conservationists as â€Å"preservationists† but that he prefers to call them â€Å"druid. † â€Å"Ancient druids used to sacrifice human beings under oak trees,† â€Å"Mode rn druids worship trees and sacrifice human beings to those tree.They want to save things they like, all for themselves. † Fraser's characterization of environmentalists as modern druids who â€Å"worship trees and sacrifice human beings to those trees† provides the charge against Brower that forms the title of the book. Brower came to Georgia in order to stop Fraser's plan to develop Cumberland Island. Actually, Brower agreed that it would be a better candidate if Fraser developed Cumberland Island with federal protection. I think that both of them have common sense.Even though Fraser is a businessman, but he cares about the environment. I agree with Brower and I believe everyone has their own responsibility to get involved with environmental issues. Developing and environmental issue are always conflicted in current. Maybe we will find out the best solution to solve this puzzle. According to environmental ethic, we have to protect our environment first. I agree with t hat it is priority to protect our Earth Planet. I think it might be human nature, we always realize our mistake after we actually have made the mistake.For example in China, compare to 20 years ago, China’s economy has been developing to a very higher level, but the environment condition is going down to the hell. China has been studying and learning economic developing from Western for a long while and realized that economy is the most important thing for the country. Most of Chinese think that America is the superpower state in the world because our super economy and technology. Previous Chinese President, Mr. Deng Xiaoping, after his economic reforms, the whole country’s living standard has been increased enormously.During developing, Chinese has realized that economic developing has destroyed the country’s environment. Now it is the payback time for Chinese, even they want to spend 10 times more it won’t get the nature environment back. I don’t think that all the Chinese realize how important environment it is. I agree with most of Brower s opinion and I like to protect our green earth, but I believe that developing is very important too. Some of Fraser’s thoughts are right to me. I would like to see the developing with good environmental protection. The best asset religion offers is the moral framework by which practitioners must abide. 3] Since many environmental problems have stemmed from human activity, it follows that religion might hold some solutions to mitigating destructive patterns. Buddhism idealizes and emphasizes interconnection,[4] thereby creating a mindset that creates a productive and cooperative relationship between humans and nature. That all actions are based on the premise of interconnection makes the Buddhist mindset affective in generating modesty, compassion, and balance among followers, which may ultimately mitigate the harm done to the environment.One benefit of the Buddhist interconnected mindset is the inevitable humility that ensues. Because humans are entwined with natural systems, damage done upon the Earth is also harm done to humans. [5] This realization is quite modifying to a human race that historically pillages the Earth for individual benefit. When rational humans minimize the split between humanity and nature and bridge the gaps,[3] only then will a mutual respect emerge in which all entities coexist rather than fight.Buddhism maintains that the reason for all suffering comes from attachment. [6] When release from the tight grasp humanity has on individuality and separateness occurs, then oneness and interconnection is realized. So rather than emphasizing winners and losers, humanity will understand its existence within others; this results in a modesty that ends egoic mind. Another benefit of Buddhist practice to the environment is the compassion that drives all thinking. [3] When humans realize that they are all onnected, harm done to another will neve r benefit the initiator. [5] Therefore, peaceful wishes for everyone and everything will ultimately benefit the initiator. Through accepting that the web of life is connected[4]—if one entity benefits, all benefit[5]—then the prevailing mindset encourages peaceful actions all the time. If everything depends on everything else, then only beneficial events will make life situations better. Acceptance of compassion takes training and practice, which is also encouraged by Buddhist moral conduct in the form of mediation.This habitual striving for harmony and friendship among all beings creates a more perfect relationship between humanity and nature. Lastly, Buddhist mindset relies on taking the middle road or striving for balance. Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, spent his life searching for the outlet of human suffering, eventually concluding that a balance must be established between self-destruction and self-indulgence. [7] While modern, industrial humans emp hasize economic and social aspects of life and lastly environmental aspects, this view is lopsided. 5] When human preferences are leveled with environmental preferences—giving a voice to natural systems as well as human systems—then can balance and harmony be realized. Therefore, using this idealized and disciplined framework that Buddhism has to offer can create lasting solutions to amending the broken relationship between humanity and nature. What ensues is an ethic, rather than a short-term policy or technological fix. [5] When never-ending consumption patterns cease for the betterment of the world as a whole, then all systems will harmoniously interact in a non-abusive way. 5] Without needing to adopt a new religion, just recognizing and accepting this mindset can help to heal the environmental injuries of the past. Buddhists today are involved in spreading environmental awareness. In a meeting with the U. S Ambassador to the Republic of India Timothy J. Roemer, th e Dalai Lama urged the U. S to engage China on climate change in Tibet. [8] The Dalai Lama has also been part of a series on discussions organised by the Mind and Life Institute; a non profit organisation that specializes on the relationship between science and Buddhism.The talks were partly about ecology, ethics and interdependence and issues on global warming were brought up [9] According to some social science research, Christians and members of the Christian right are typically less concerned about issues of environmental responsibility than the general public. [1][2] Green Christianity is a broad field that encompasses Christian theological reflection on nature, Christian liturgical and spiritual practices centered on environmental issues, as well as Christian-based activism in the environmental movement. citation needed] Within the activism arena, green Christianity refers to a diverse group of Christians who emphasize the biblical or theological basis for protecting and celeb rating the environment. [citation needed] The term indicates not a particular denomination, but a shared territory of concern. [citation needed] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism#Religions_and_the_environment

Cyber Bullying Is the Fastest Growing Trend in Bullying

Cyber bullying is the fastest growing trend in bullying among teens and probably the most dangerous. It gives anonymity to those who don’t want people to actually see them bullying in school. Also, cyber bullying takes away the last sanctuary some of these kids have, their home. What an awful feeling that must be, to come home from a day of being picked on just to be picked on more via internet. Cyber bullying can come in many ways: text message, email, website, blogs, They can be pictures taken from a camera phone sent to many people to see. Teens spend a lot of time on the internet using social websites like, Myspace and Facebook. These are places where a kid can kind of reinvent himself and exert a little creativity. A place to â€Å"get away† and when those things are taken away the results can be disastrous. This was a difficult paper for me to write. I tend to be an empathetic person and reading all of the horrible stories about children taking their own lives and suffering all that abuse really broke my heart. I, like most people, experienced bullying in middle school and it still bothers me today. I wish there was a way to stop all bullying but over half of bullying incidents go unreported. It is terribly sad that millions of children suffer every day at the hands of bullies. These poor souls can go their entire lives living in fear and feeling completely weakened and insufficient. I know first hand the damage caused when a depressed person takes his own life. Learned Helplessness is a lie. There is always a way out, always steps that can be taken. Suicide is a permanent solution to a temporary problem. If only we could get these bullied kids to see that they aren’t alone and that they are capable, wonderful kids. They need to understand that their identity is not defined by these heartless and cruel actions. We may not be able to stop the bullying but we can certainly diminish the lasting effects. I tutor a 5 year old that struggles with being picked up. They make fun of the way his head is shaped and it is horribly remarkable how fast he has become sensitive about the way he looks. Some days you can see the defeat in his eyes and in the way that he moves. It is heart breaking. I am going to close with a poem written by a 14 year old girl whose best friend committed suicide as a result of being bullied.